Notes on the Vulnerabilities of Migrant Populations

2011-Dec-09

An Overview of the* Vulnerabilities of Migrant Populations

A common impact of major mining and infrastructural projects in developing countries is the migration influx of opportunity seekers. People will migrate into the area for different reasons, some out of free will in search of better opportunities for themselves and their family members, while others may be compelled to leave their home by conflict, disaster or insecurities that threaten their health, well-being and even their very lives. Influx may be also motivated by expectations around the project itself, or it might be the result of a more general perception of opportunity in a town or a region.

While some migrants will come as skilled workers and (in the best case scenario) may enjoy benefits as part of a well-regulated and managed workforce, others will come as informal migrants often lacking access to health services or suffering deplorable living and working conditions.1 (WHO 2010: 9) [1]: Jorge Bustamante, United Nations Special Rapporteur on the Human Rights of Migrants, calls this employment in “3-D” jobs (dirty, difficult and dangerous); such employment also includes work that affords no opportunity for participation in social protection schemes (WHO 2010: 7).

Influx is not negative by definition, but its impacts can be damaging where the migrants are not readily assimilated—placing stress on services, disrupting existing communities, and in some cases living in unhealthy and crowded conditions.

Migrants are generally understood to be more vulnerable to social, environmental, and health shocks than sedentary populations. When migrating—temporarily, seasonally, and even permanently—migrants must adapt to the new health environment of the communities in which they settle. Often times, the migrants and their host communities share different, values and beliefs reflective of different socio-economic and cultural backgrounds. (WHO 2010:9-10)

There has been a growing concern within civil society about many migrants’ working and living conditions and, as a consequence, of their well-being. General trends such as the exclusion of migrants from access to basic social services (e.g., education and healthcare) may exacerbate other problem dynamics and lead to social disruptions.

During economic downturns, migrant workers are often the most vulnerable in terms of job losses and workplace treatment. Discrimination and stigma increase during difficult times, as migrants are mistakenly perceived as taking the jobs of local workers. (WHO 2010: 8

To help mitigate for the potential of negative social and environmental impacts resulting from project-induced migration, it is thus critical to ascertain not only how to prevent and minimize the in-migration phenomenon, but also to examine and account for migrant-specific needs and vulnerabilities and to account for such in project planning.

Health Vulnerabilities of Migrant Populations

Migration can have significant health consequences for people and communities. For instance, migrants connect the health environment of their community of origin with that of the host community, and so may introduce conditions into host communities and/or can acquire conditions while migrating or residing in host communities that they carry with them when returning home. This is by no means relevant only in the context of infectious problems, but also with respect to non-communicable conditions. (WHO 2010: 9)

Planning Challenges for Managing Migration and Associated Impacts

National policies and strategies to manage the consequences of migration have generally not kept pace with growing challenges related to the volume, speed, and diversity of the modern migration phenomenon—often failing to sufficiently identify not only the determining factors of migration, but also mechanisms for its effective management. In the context of healthcare, for example, Governments often attempt to create screening controls aimed at excluding migrants with certain health conditions, using security and disease prevention. Strict migration controls, however, often increase the use of clandestine and dangerous entry methods—in turn compromising the well-being of migrants such as by increasing their exposure to exploitation and sexual and gender-based violence (WHO 2010: 8-10).

Modern approaches, by contrast, focuses instead on inclusive forms of impact mitigation, such as by taking measures to reduce social inequalities by opening institutions of social protection to all people—including migrants. Access of migrants to health care has become of paramount importance in a rights-based health system and to efforts aimed at reducing health inequities. (WHO 2010: 8, 10)

Striking the right balance, however, will be be difficult: Project development strategies that seek to improve local capacity to meet infrastructure, services, and utilities demands may in turn serve to attract in-migrants and stimulate further economic development that supports additional in-migration. (IFC 2006: 53)

Assessing the Migration Impacts of a Proposed Project

The Project will trigger during its construction and operations phases a great demand for goods and services—both directly for the project and indirectly for the needs of those who will be drawn to the area. The company's choice for how to engage or create service centres for the provision of human and economic resources will have tremendous consequences for the scope and form of project induced in-migration.

To estimate the impacts of new migrant settlements on local food supplies, infrastructure (telecommunications, transport, healthcare, and educational services) and other facilities, the project needs to analyse the likely geographical distributions of migrants within the project area of influence and its associated consequences for access to food resources and land access, as well as health impacts such as heightened incidences of sexually transmitted infections (STIs). To do this, it is appropriate to start with an evaluation of the “pull” factors associated with project design, followed by predictive forecasting of “hot spot” emergence based on the sequencing of project activities.

Migration dynamics associated with current project design

Land acquisition and resettlement

Compensation packages and royalty payments awarded for project land acquisition usufruct rights is often a significant pull factor. The project approach to land acquisition and resettlement (such as its clearly articulated—and past—closeout date for land compensation claims) should help reduce sustained in-migration deriving from land asset speculation. To further reduce the pull of land speculations, awareness that the land compensation has been finalized should be heightened throughout the project area.

Community benefits programs

Project arrangements for extensions of community benefits programmes and services are highly sensitive issues. Greater accessibility to project services, livelihood improvement measures, and other community benefits options, while necessary, can also be a significant pull factor—especially as an impetus for kinship-based in-migration. Particular attention must be paid to how to ensure that community development initiatives can be implemented to the benefit of local populations, while at the same time not excluding migrant access to basic social services.

Health and Safety Commitments

Provision of health and safety should be considered a human rights issue and extended to project-affected communities. To properly address this issue, it is important to recognize that any extension of healthcare services in the project area will need to be implemented commensurate with project in-migration flows. This is especially important for emergency health care facilities, which will be most heavily taxed by in-migrant population (owing to the greater health risks and disease exposure resulting from their transient circumstances), but both near- and long-terms healthcare services should be opened to migrant populations and subsequently will exert some “pull” in migrants’ settlement selection. Project decisions for where new healthcare facilities will be located and/or extended should be expected to contribute to the emergence of migrant hot spots.

Potential Migration-Induced Impacts on the Project Area of Influence

Socio-Cultural and Socio-Economic Change

Migration can induce socio-cultural change to the extent that is serves to re-define the value system and class structure or a given society (Portes 2008: 20). While this is seldom a concern for larger societies (within which migrants occupy one of many sub-cultural groups), in the case of Halmahera Island—where the human population influx to Central and Eastern Halmahera Regencies will likely swell the population to more than double their current size—socio-cultural change is unavoidable.

Unmitigated human population influx to Halmahera Island may involve a host of disruptive consequences, including the disruption of traditional kinship systems and care structures (King & Vullnetari 2006: 783-816) or the loss of community solidarity and the undermining of “sociocultural integrity” (Hayes 1991: 1-58). Local community exposure to the wealth of migrants and the new goods and ideas they bring will also contribute to changing rural tastes (Lipton 1980: 12) and may potentially increase the demands for imported urban or foreign-produced goods—thereby increasing the general costs of living (de Haas 2008: 16). Moreover, manual labourers clustered in poor and marginal areas tend to create a host of religious, cultural, and sport organizations for their own comfort and well-being. (Portes 2008: 21-22)

In terms of the potential of migration for contributing to political and economic change, the project is a major player in a labour-intensive sector that is structurally dependent on flows of skilled, semi-skilled, and unskilled workers may serve either to consolidate or to modify fundamental aspects of the island’s regional power structure. Cyclical movements possess the least capacity for changing current political régimes—partially because of their very temporariness and precariousness (Piore 1979), and partially because of the amount of technical and capital investment of the mining industry to the existing government—but such consolidation itself may be an “unnatural” or “forced” ramification of the need to manage migration issues (that is to say, the political and economic structure of Halmahera is certain to be transformed in the wake of the client project).

Creation of Migration “Hotspots”

In their travel to the project area in search of jobs and other opportunities, migrants will pass through different regional and local hubs before finally settling at their target destinations. While some of these areas will be sufficiently large and institutionally equipped to accommodate heavy population flows, others will lack the institutional and human capacity to appropriately regulate and manage in-migrant populations. IFC refers to those destinations that need to be protected from, and prepared for, an expected wave of project-induced in-migration as “hotspots” (IFC 2010: 62).

It is important to keep in mind that hotspots may emerge in a variety of contexts; densely populated areas with fairly well functioning social and economic institutions may emerge as hotspots if such institutions cannot be scaled to meet the demands of population surges such as may occur during peak migration periods. Less populated areas currently utilized as fueling depots and output supply stations, may arise as hotspots if the passage between regional hubs and destination areas is particularly long in duration (i.e. migrants would prefer a “break” to rest along the journey) or if those hotspots closer to the project are seen as undesirable living areas.

Newly Emerging Villages

In addition to the socioeconomic transformations of existing project villages, the project should expect new settlement (nascent villages) to form over time along access roads and transit corridors. Such increases in the number of settlement areas will occur both from the pressures of human population increase (“natural” or project-induced) as the actual habitable space available within villages will be fully utilized (at least to the degree that local infrastructure technologies allow)—forcing people (especially young people seeking new land for homesteading) to move outside formal village limits.

Appearance of Squatter Encampments

The project should expect squatter settlements to emerge outside the gates of each camp and construction site. Even remote locations are likely to be flanked by squatter encampments, as small vendors (especially food vendors, but also vendors of small goods) will be capable of bringing their goods—or themselves, such as in the case of sexual services—to such areas (on foot, if not with the assistance of motorized vehicles).

Threats to Food Security

Any increase in the populations of Central and East Halmahera Regencies will exert increased pressure on local food stocks and natural resources availability. Measures need to be taken to assure food production is increased and access to basic foodstuffs is assured so that marginal populations including migrants are not squeezed in terms of access to food supplies.

Heightened Presence of Law Enforcement

Given the record of abuses by security forces that have occurred or been claimed at other project sites in Indonesia, it is imperative for the project to take measures to ensure that security forces, both public and private, are trained in the use of non-violent crowd control, human rights approaches to security issues, and appropriate measures to deal with migrant communities.

Plotting the Likelihood of Migration Impacts

Following assessment of the risk of influx, some prediction is needed of the probability of each risk occurring, the timeframe in which the impact will develop and become tangible, and the likely severity of the impact. To this end, IFC recommends (IFC 2010: 66, 67) developing a likelihood-consequence matrix that identifies impacts, summaries the consequences of their occurrence, and evaluates the likelihood of their occurrence.

To inform such efforts, IFC also recommends (IFC 2009: 61, 65) that the experience of comparable projects be brought into this analysis—both as an indicator of the likely location of influx hotspots and their likely impacts.

Factoring Migration Data into Project Design and Monitoring

The importance of data collection

Collecting data about migrants is critical for understanding what social, economic and environmental conditions most affect migrants, what social services are available to help them cope with specific risks vulnerabilities, and how the project’s migration context changes over time.

To gather such data, important variables should first be identified and the integrated into existing data collection systems (census data, data collected by other sectors such as housing, education and employment, and data collected by the private sector and non-governmental organizations) in a way that allows later analysis. Variables may be related adequacy and availability of housing, education and employment, or to age, social determinants of health and mental health conditions. (WHO 2010: 12) Data collection should be organized to enable disaggregation by specific population groups, age and gender. (WHO 2010: 12). Data categories and measures should be standardized and should ideally accord to measures used in other national project contexts for the comparative analysis (WHO 2010: 10) Beyond standard measures, the project should also consider the use of supplemental data collection efforts (e.g. targeted surveys aimed at harder-to-reach or smaller populations), and qualitative investigations to inform project-specific interventions (WHO 2010: 12).

Accounting for Change over Time

Time Series / Spatial Focus of Interventions

Migration impacts vary over time. Informal in-migrants tend to congregate in areas in close proximity to work activities; as project operations shift to different concession areas over time, so too will the influx dynamics vary. Thus, migration management initiatives need to forecast how population dynamics may shift thorough project lifecycle.

Hotspot Dynamics

As project construction begins, the cities of Weda and Sofifi can both be expected to grow rapidly.

As “landing sites” for population flows into the region, these cities are important stopping points for food, fuel, transportation, accommodations and a variety of other goods and services to people entering the project area—including project contractors and suppliers.

Some thought should go into how the project can work with local government of these cites to regulate commodities and services markets to help ensure manage economic risks associated with increasing marketization in the project area.

The adequacy and availability of healthcare services in both Sofifi and Weda is also of critical concern in understanding and mitigating the potential for negative impacts of project-induced human population influx.

Will grow and likely remain large, even after project closure In-migration likely to induce significant cultural change Service industries offered by migrants likely to displace local business Settlement disputes possible

“Pass-through” point on the way to project locations from Sofifi “Pass-through” point to northern projects

Options for preventing / minimizing in-migration and mitigating negative impacts

A comprehensive community benefits package, in principle, should include:

Employment and income opportunities and related benefits including indirect employment opportunities (local sourcing , SME development)—especially during construction and operation phases Cultivation of local human capital and institutional capacity: training for community members and community leaders, capacity building for community institutions, and training & micro credits to support existing and new businesses Benefits for the community resulting from the development of infrastructure [ideally, these should be spearheaded / supported by the company, but managed by the government and local communities] education access to markets, health, sanitation Foundations and Trusts, to sustain human and social capital accumulation, including by (a) establishing and financing local development initiatives to be implemented as part of project operations and by set up for providing funds for future generations (post closure) Allowances for long term development projects Mechanisms for ensuring partnership/ collaboration Delivery of development programs in absence of other institutional capacity Participatory, transparent, and accountable mechanism for investment of resources for development A shared vision of what community should look like in 10 to 20 years Definition of programs should fit into that vision M&E effectiveness/impact of programs with that vision Harmonization with local/regional economic development programs (if they exist)

Managing for health impacts

Health-specific concerns for data analysis

Monitoring variables related to migrant health is an essential aspect of improving both health status and utilization of health services by migrants. Monitoring the impact of migration on health systems in migrant-receiving locations can assist the effective tailoring of services and interventions and improve health outcomes. Approaches for monitoring migrant health include the standardized recording of migration-related elements such as country/region of birth and/or last residence, the nature of the migratory process, and duration of residence. Access to such data can be acquired through a variety of sources, such as by disaggregating migrant-relevant health information from existing data collection processes like census, national statistics reports and health surveys, as well as in routine medical/health information-gathering efforts. When standardized and uniform health information about migrants is shared between countries and sectors (e.g. between immigration or employment data sets and health), regional and global patterns can be more easily appreciated. (WHO 2010: 11) As of 2010, however, there was no standardized approach to data collection on migrant health (WHO 2010: 11)

Some health specific-issues that need to be addressed via data analysis include:

  1. the health-seeking behaviours of migrants
  2. populations needing targeted interventions or services
  3. provider attitudes about migrants
  4. how health systems perform with respect to timeliness, effectiveness and other quality of care variables

Data-driven analysis of these issues can help government planning departments, public health agencies, institutions that deliver health services to initiate programmes to improve the quality of care for migrants, and to integrate migrant health issues into larger health reform agendas such as primary health care renewal (WHO 2010: 11).

Migrant Health Management Priorities

The Sixty-first World Health Assembly (WHA), the decision-making body of the World Health Organisation, resolved that four inter-linked thematic priority areas are central to management of migrant health;1 [2]: Resolution WHA61.17on the Health of Migrants (http://www.who.int/gb/ebwha/pdf_files/A61_R17-en.pdf) the elements of those most relevant to the project are:

Monitoring: health data needs to be standardized to enable cross-comparisons; support should be given to processes for collecting migrant health information; health system models should be mapped and analysed to help identify good practices that can be replicated across future development efforts (WHO 2010: 9). This was addressed in the section above. Policy and legal frameworks: relevant international standards on the protection of migrants and respect for rights to health need to be adopted and promoted in legislative frameworks; all companies must implement national health policies that promote equal access to health services for migrants and to extend social protections in health and improve social security for all migrants. (WHO 2010: 9) Migrant sensitive health systems: health services delivered to migrants should be culturally and linguistically appropriate; capacity of the health and relevant non-health workforce need to be enhanced to address the health issues associated with migration; migrant inclusive services should be delivered in a comprehensive, coordinated, and financially sustainable fashion. (WHO 2010: 9) Partnerships & networks: cooperation across sectors or industries should be established to in support of migration health dialogues and high-level management initiatives (WHO 2010: 9)

In support of this approach, the World Health Organization Secretariat2 [3]: Health of Migrants, report of the Secretariat, World Health Organisation, Sixty-first World Health Assembly, A61/12, 7 April 2008.conceptualised four basic principles of health management approach targeting the health of migrants and host communities that the project should also take into consideration when designing health management options. These principles are:

to avoid disparities in health status and access to health services between migrants and the host population; to ensure migrants’ health rights. This entails limiting discrimination or stigmatization, and removing impediments to migrants’ access to preventive and curative interventions, which are the basic health entitlements of the host population. to put in place lifesaving interventions so as to reduce excess mortality and morbidity among migrant populations. to minimize the negative impact of the migration process on migrants’ health outcomes.

Restrictive employment sourcing and “no hire” zones

Restrictive employment sourcing and “no hire” zones are tactics that may be useful in “deflecting” migrant population flows from the project area to larger regional centres that can better accommodate human population influx. Essentially, restrictive employment means that the company will utilize only specific agents or agencies to hire formal workers and labourers for project tasks. “No hire zones” mean that there are specific zones within or near to the project CoW area in which no labour will be sourced. Such arrangements are possible especially if the company works out with local communities special partnership arrangements that will enable the communities to grow sustainably (for instance by providing food resources and certain services, such as laundering of clothing, not in exchange for direct monetary compensation but rather as a community contract in exchange for on-going company investment in community-managed development funds, etc.). If the project is to use individuals from local villages on labour crews, the challenges of how to source such individuals—and especially how to distinguish local community members from migrants—must first be addressed.

Especially important to practices of restrictive employment sourcing and no hire zones is for such policies to be broadly known both within and outside of the project area of influence. The support of community members themselves will also be critical, as it is likely primarily through word-of-mouth that newly arriving migrants will learn of the limitations of the project-related employment in areas near to the site.

For a project with a 'titular' name of 'Weda', it would make sense for the town of Weda to be identified as one such area for employment sourcing. Certainly, the government of Weda is likely to advocate for the location of such employment sourcing area in their city. The pitfalls of sourcing people from Weda, however, include the reality that the town still lacks adequate public institutional capacity and social services support , and also that the location of such a recruiting centre in Weda will do little to mitigate for potential impacts that the expected rise of job seekers will have on the general Weda Bay area. Sourcing employment still further afield, in Sofifi or Ternate, might be considered as an alternative.

Benefits Support for Host Communities

The client project has pledged to begin implementation of a Community Development Plan in mid-2012. This Plan needs to be reviewed and revised in light of the likely impacts of extensive in-migration as most of the CDP’s components should serve as both critical mitigation avenues as well as benefits-sharing initiatives for host communities.

Regulation of local economies and creating market bias in favour local community enterprise

Migrants are often adept entrepreneurs, and their prior experience with market economies can give them a competitive advantage allowing them to out-compete local entrepreneurs. To support local business people, the project might consider innovative ways to sponsor local economic development and entrepreneurialism within the context of the Community Development Plan and its economic development components, such as by partnering with local communities to helping local communities to purchase and manage needed equipment—especially transportation machinery. For instance, if the project were to purchase a number of motorcycles and automotive vehicles and to help the community to organize a rental or leasing system at sub-market rates (with the proceeds of these services allocated to a community investment fund) such might serve dual purposes of offsetting potential in-migrant economies and helping community members to generate revenues for long-term sustainability objectives.

Similarly—accepting that people will be moving into the project area—the client project can begin planning for how to manage the construction of new habitation structures and settlements. For instance, material and technical resources could be introduced and managed jointly by the company for infrastructure improvement and construction. Once constructed, lots and living quarters might be designated as community property, and set aside for rental to temporary visitors, or as a community housing options available to in-migrating family members of current villagers for transitional use while permanent accommodations are being prepared. The company may also choose to construct publicly managed commercial zones, such as food processing decks, cooking galleys and laundry facilities in support of joint community-company production service contracts (such as may form the basis of company-managed work programmes). Another possibility that the project needs to address is whether or not it could play a role in facilitating greater market access for local communities.

Overall, engaging the community as partners and stakeholders in local and regional development processes should help to increase the local incentive for helping to regulate and minimize in-migrant flows.

Non-transferable forms of mitigation and benefits-sharing: infrastructure, institutional development, local capacity building

Perhaps the best benefits for project-affected local people are those that are anchored within their communities and provide lasting benefits to current community members and future generations. Such benefits include village infrastructure improvements and extensions, the establishment of community-managed services, technical assistance and capacity-building initiatives that help to transfer skills and knowledge from the company to the local communities.

Infrastructure Support

Infrastructure development, improvement and extension initiatives are one way not only to help buffer local populations’ potential economic and health shocks introduced via the in-migration phenomenon, but they also represent a means for promoting other sustainability initiatives, such as knowledge- and skills-development via technical assistance programming.

Infrastructure development means not just extending the quality and extent of roadways and mobile phone towers throughout the project area and other forms of built infrastructure. Infrastructure can also include other physical components of interrelated systems providing commodities and services essential to enable, sustain, or enhance societal living conditions (Fulmer 2009: 30-32).

Institutional Development of NGOs and civil society partner organizations

Institutional development can help to offset migration impacts by extending the ability of local communities to absorb and assimilate newly arriving populations and by decreasing the stress and strains such that in-migration can have on traditional cultural systems.

Support for local institutions can range from efforts to formalize local systems of governance, to extend the existing educational system to include a greater amount of cultural programming (e.g. language schools, local cultural awareness initiatives, etc.). Other cultural institutions may be founded as part of the projects’ overall impact mitigation and benefits-sharing efforts, such as establishing cultural and archaeological museums where project baseline data collection efforts can be archived and showcased. The Community Development Program’s adat support component should be reviewed and bolstered in light of the shifting population dynamics triggered by in-migration.

Community Development Options for Offsetting Migration Impacts Improve village infrastructure Create community-managed commercial spaces Food processing decks Kitchens and cooking galleys Laundry services Rental housing Facilitate community-managed service provision Vehicle rental

Support for local institutional development Cultural institutions Language schools Cultural museums Archaeological museums

Technical Assistance and Capacity-building Equipment training Agricultural extension

Technical Assistance and Capacity-building

Technical assistance and capacity-building efforts can be built into the design of nearly every community-development initiatives. For example, recognizing that there is the possibility that people in local villages will want to bring in extended family members to their villages as project benefits-sharing arrangement are implemented, there will be an increased need for the construction of new buildings and residences. Better than to simply finances such residences, the project could engage teams of architects may to evaluate locally available (regenerating ) resources and then help villagers to understand and use indigenous technologies to safely and efficiently manage their own construction efforts. Similarly, teams could be sent to villages from time to time to consult villagers on how to properly upkeep village structures—also using locally available indigenous resources.

Company-community management schemes

As with any community development initiative, however, any efforts to help benefit local communities vis-à-vis migrant populations must be carefully planned and managed—and they must have the support and buy-in of the community members themselves. An additional potential benefit of project-sponsored technical assistance to public works programmes is that the communities themselves can gain knowledge and training on scalable forms of resources utilization while they also extend the safety and cleanliness of their village environments—thereby realizing long-term sustainability objectives while addressing short-term issues and concerns, such as mitigating for the spread of soil- and water-borne and vector-related diseases. At the same time, any improvement in village infrastructure, coupled with any extension of habitable dwellings beyond village demands, constitute tremendous “pull” factors for potential migrants. Therefore, the project and the communities would have to work together to define limitations on the extensions of project support, and establish regulations for the use of any project-financed village infrastructure extension services. For instance, with regard to housing, villagers and the company together would need to define limits to the duration that any visitor could rent or stay in community-leased accommodations, and what mechanisms are available for evicting unruly migrants who attempt to overstay their welcome.

On-going Stakeholder Engagement

The client project should convene with local government and external stakeholders (e.g. NGOs and civil society partner organizations) to map options and approaches to accommodate in-migrants and jointly commit to strategic priorities. All stakeholders should cooperate to define appropriate roles in the co-management of population influx. Issues that are especially dependent on co-management include zoning, permitting, and regulatory codes for non-project construction activities (e.g. new housing structures or settlements), financial management of public services, and targeted management strategies for high risk groups (truck drivers, expatriate workers, sex workers, people from regions with higher HIV/AIDS prevalence etc.).

The Community Development Plan’s Advisory Board structure should be utilised to channel community level (village to kabupaten) inputs into this migration planning, particularly as the CDP components will need to be significantly revised in light of migration impacts. So too the Yayasan Saloi needs to be brought in as a consulted entity during the migration management planning process.

Getting stakeholder buy-in for Data Collection

In order to develop a viable framework for data collection, it is essential for all stakeholders—and particularly migrants themselves--to understand what the data will be used for and by whom, and to make the case to those who will participate in designing and executing the data collection process. (WHO 2010: 11) Migrants can be distrustful of attempts to collect information about their migration status, ethnicity, religion or socio-cultural factors, based on valid fears about the discrimination, exclusion, and the potential for negative interactions with authorities. Migrants with an irregular status may fear deportation if details about their lives are known. Cultural and linguistic factors may influence how migrants perceive and respond to questions about civil status, social services utilization, and satisfaction with such services—complicating how this data is interpreted. (WHO 2010: 12) It will be important to engage migrants and their trusted community representatives in the process of designing, explaining and conducting monitoring processes in order to maximize their participation in this effort (WHO 2010: 12).

Necessary Elements of Future Actions Blueprint

These following components are instrumental to the effective management of project-induced in-migrants. The specific design and implementation of each component will require multi-stakeholder engagement.

Targeted Health Programming Respiratory Health Vector-related Diseases Sexually Transmitted Infections Soil- and Water-Borne Diseases Non-communicable Diseases (NCDs) Veterinary Medicine/Zoonotic Issues

Community Health Management Managing Social Health Psychosocial effects Changes to social cohesion Violence Security concerns Substance misuse (drugs, alcohol, smoking) Depression Managing Cultural Health Changing community roles (e.g. loss of traditional medical providers; loss of indigenous medicines and unique cultural health practices, etc.) Changing meaning of ethnic identities

Food Security Food source availability Food cost inflation Diet and Nutritional Health

Spatial Planning Village-level spatial planning Housing Buffer zones Site Access Routes (Re)location of in-migrants

Infrastructure Road Construction and Maintenance Water supply and management systems Sanitation and waste management systems Health Services Infrastructure Sanitation and waste management systems

Labour and Workforce Management Accidents and Injuries Exposure to Potentially Hazardous Materials Workforce recruitment Labour and Workforce Security

Community Development Development of services and utilities Vocational training Banking services Enterprise development Development of Markets Strengthening of Adat institutions

The Future Actions Blueprint should set forward mechanisms for arriving at specific implementation arrangements for each. Common to each component is the need to define, to the greatest extent possible, each of the following:

Rationale Goals/Objectives Activities (specifying how the activity will help achieve objective; Intended outcomes, and timeframe within which these outcomes will be achieved; Implementation Resource requirements Indicators and a monitoring and evaluation framework specifying measures to evaluate effectiveness of the intervention/program. Where influx management objectives are added into existing mitigation and community development programs consideration should be given to developing and integrating influx-specific indicators.

To the extent possible, migration management efforts will integrate with the community development programmes already identified and agreed to by the project-affected local communities.

References Cited

Fulmer, Jeffrey. 2009. “What in the world is infrastructure?” PEI Infrastructure Investor (July/August): 30–32.

Hein de Haas. 2008. “The internal dynamics of migration processes.” [Paper presented at IMSCOE Conference on Theories of Migration and Social Change St Anne’s College, University of Oxford

Hayes G. 1991. “Migration, Metascience, and Development Policy in Island Polynesia.” The Contemporary Pacific 3: 1-58

International Finance Corporation. 2009. Projects and Peoples: A Handbook for Addressing Project-Induced In-Migration. IFC: Washington D.C. http://www.ifc.org/ifcext/sustainability.nsf/Content/Publications_Handbook_Inmigration

King R, Vullnetari J. 2006. “Orphan pensioners and migrating grandparents: the impact of mass migration on older people in rural Albania.” Ageing & Society 26: 783- 816

Lipton M. 1980. “Migration from the rural areas of poor countries: The impact on rural productivity and income distribution.” World Development 8: 1-24

Piore, Michael. 1979. Birds of Passage. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.

Portes, Alejandro. 2008. “Migration and Social Change: Some Conceptual Reflections” [Princeton University Center for Migration and Development Working Paper #08-0]. Princeton: Princeton University Website. Available at: http://cmd.princeton.edu/papers/wp0804.pdf

World Health Organization. 2010. Health of migrants: the way forward - report of a global consultation, Madrid, Spain, 3-5 March 2010. Geneva: World Health Organization [ISBN 978 92 4 159950 4]